With reference to the Francois Bernier’s observations in 17th century, consider the following statements:
1. Peasants in Mughal India had land ownership rights similar to those in Western Europe.
2. A prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade existed.
3. Absence of a middle class was observed in India.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation Statement 1 is not correct: Bernier explicitly noted the absence of private property in land in Mughal India, which was a key difference from Western Europe. He argued that peasants did not have ownership rights and that land was controlled by the emperor and distributed among nobles.
Statement 2 is correct: While Bernier’s preoccupation with projecting the Mughal state as tyrannical is obvious, his descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. For instance, he felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures were, consequently, everywhere in decline. At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.
Statement 3 is correct: Bernier observed that Indian society was polarized between the extremely wealthy ruling class and the vast masses of impoverished peasants and laborers. He noted the absence of a distinct middle class, which in his view was essential for progress and stability. According to him, there was no intermediate social group between the rich and the poor — a stark contrast to the social structure of Western Europe.
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