Explanation Item 1 is correct: Cinder cones are formed from explosive eruptions, where pyroclastic material (volcanic dust and ash) accumulates around the vent. These landforms are part of extrusive volcanic topography.
Item 2 is correct: A caldera is considered an extrusive volcanic topography. A caldera is an enlarged form of a crater. There are two theories regarding its formation:
● Subsidence Theory: Proposed by the U.S. Geological Survey, this theory suggests that a caldera is formed due to the subsidence of a crater, with steep walls surrounding it. Examples include the Aso Crater in Japan and Crater Lake in the USA.
● Explosive Eruption Theory: Some scientists argue that calderas are formed by violent and explosive eruptions that cause the collapse of the volcanic structure.
Item 3 is not correct: Intrusive Volcanic Topography Includes features like volcanic plugs, batholiths, laccoliths, phacoliths, lopoliths, sills, dikes, and stocks. These form when magma intrudes beneath the Earth's surface and solidifies.
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